CARTA - Anthropogeny (Audio)

Humans live in a world of ideas—born in the brain, shared through language, accumulated in culture across generations, and made reality. From the first flaked stone tools to the building of shelters, from figurative and symbolic art to abstract thought, our brains are engines of imagination—an “idea organ” that has transformed both our species and the planet itself. The distinct biology of the human brain, scaffolded by language and culture, allows ideas to be formed, named, shared, and accumulated across generations. This process of cumulative culture, knowledge built upon knowledge, has propelled humans far beyond the cognitive landscapes of other large-brained animals, including our closest living and extinct relatives. This symposium explores how the human brain develops, functions, and maintains its role as the seat of ideas. We trace its story from molecules, cells, neuronal migration and circuitry, to the maternal, parental, and social influences that shape its growth, including the countless ways that brain function can be compromised at any stage of life. We examine how the uniquely human interplay of biology and culture gave rise to a brain capable of perceiving and remaking the world around us. By examining the evolutionary roots of our “idea organ,” we aim to illuminate how this singular capacity emerged—and how it continues to drive human innovation. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41359]

The extraordinary abilities of the cerebral cortex are central to what sets humans apart from other species. A defining feature of the cortex is its organization along a sensorimotor-to-association (S–A) axis, extending from primary sensorimotor areas to transmodal association regions that support abstract cognition. This axis varies across species and has been profoundly remodeled in humans. Nenad Sestan, professor of neuroscience at Yale, discusses his recent work on the molecular and cellular mechanisms that govern the development and evolution of the cortical S–A axis, with particular emphasis on the prefrontal cortex and its broader distributed transmodal association networks as well as their evolutionary expansion, functional roles, and vulnerability in neurological and psychiatric disorders. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41361]

Human brain expansion is often discussed in terms of the genetic and molecular innovations that drove uniquely human cognitive abilities. Yet evolution is fundamentally a process of tradeoffs. Disproportionate expansion of forebrain structures increases the demands placed on long-range connectivity, metabolism, and cellular maintenance, imposing costs that scale with brain size. Alex Pollen, associate professor of neurology at UC San Francisco, discusses using stem-cell-derived brain organoids to investigate the development of human-specific connectivity differences in dopaminergic neurons and to test whether these cells deploy compensatory mechanisms to cope with the metabolic and structural demands of large brains. His research findings support a model in which human brain evolution involves not only mechanisms driving greater computational capacity, but also the emergence of cellular adaptations that mitigate the costs of large, highly connected brains. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41357]

Dr. Bruce Miller, director of the UCSF Edward and Pearl Fein Memory and Aging Center, examines what neurodegenerative disease reveals about the neural basis of creativity and the social mind. Research in frontotemporal dementia (FTD) shows that visual creativity is not rare: a subset of patients—particularly those with left anterior temporal degeneration—develop new or intensified artistic abilities early in the disease course. These findings suggest that damage to language-dominant left hemisphere regions may release posterior visual networks from inhibition, leading to enhanced visual–spatial expression. Miller situates these observations within human evolution, proposing that art emerges with Homo sapiens, possibly linked to changes in the parietal lobe and the development of the social brain. In contrast, behavioral variant FTD erodes empathy and altruism through right frontal degeneration. Together, these patterns suggest brain asymmetry is central to our creative and social capacities. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41356]

From stone tools and shelters to symbolic art and abstract thought, human history is shaped by a brain built to form and share ideas. Joseph Paradiso, Professor in Media Arts and Sciences at the MIT Media Lab, explores what comes next after the early visions of ubiquitous computing have largely arrived in today’s Internet of Things world, where low-power sensors and interfaces are embedded in smart devices across our environments and connect seamlessly to widespread networking infrastructure. He asks how this information connects to people, and how perception, cognition, and identity might expand beyond our corporeal confines. Drawing on recent projects from his Responsive Environments research group, he examines sensing at multiple scales in the physical world, including wearables, smart buildings, connected landscapes, and space missions, and the different ways sensed or inferred information can connect to people. Examples include smart buildings as “prosthetic” extensions of their inhabitants, manifesting sensed or inferred phenomena in virtual analog environments, and interfaces modulated by user attention and focus or augmented by real-time AI. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41327]

A fundamental question in biology is: how did humans acquire their unique characteristics? What allows us to stand upright, while our primate ancestors walked on all fours? What brain alterations drove our increased intelligence and allowed us to perceive our own mortality? One of the mechanisms that has been hypothesized to be involved is changes in gene expression elicited by nucleotide alterations in non-coding regions of the human genome. Miles Wilkinson, a professor in the Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences at UC, San Diego, discusses a class of DNA sequences hypothesized to have this role. These human accelerated regions (HARs) are segments of DNA that exhibit 3 characteristics that—together—make them prime candidates for specifying human-specific traits by altering patterns of gene expression. First, HARs have rapidly changed in sequence specifically in the human lineage. Second, HARs are highly conserved in sequence, indicating they that must have been selected for the ability to confer one or more function in higher organisms. Third, the vast majority of HARs are in the non-coding portion of animal genomes, indicating that most are likely to have a regulatory function. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41300]

Humans excel at transmitting ideas, skills, and knowledge across generations, and at building on those competencies in a cumulative manner. James Rilling, Professor of Psychology at Emory University, explores how the transmission of our cumulative culture is assumed to depend on both language and mental perspective-taking, or theory of mind. If humans have specialized abilities in these domains, we must have neurobiological specializations to support them. Our research has used comparative primate neuroimaging to attempt to identify such specializations. The arcuate fasciculus is a white matter fiber tract that links Wernicke’s and Broca’s language areas. It is known to be involved in multiple, high level linguistic functions such as lexical semantics, complex syntax, and speech fluency. Using diffusion weighted imaging and tractography, we have demonstrated human specializations in the size and trajectory of the arcuate fasciculus that may partially explain human linguistic abilities. Theory of Mind depends on a set of cortical regions that belong to a neural network known as the default mode network that is functionally connected, highly active at rest, and deactivated by attention-demanding cognitive tasks. We and others have used functional neuroimaging to show that chimpanzees and other primates appear to have a default mode network that is similar to that of humans. However, the non-human primate default mode network seems to have weaker connectivity between certain key nodes, suggesting that these connections could play a role in human theory of mind specializations. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41329]

The distinct biology of the human brain, scaffolded by language and culture, allows ideas to be formed, named, shared, and accumulated across generations. Dean Falk, Professor of Anthropology, Florida State University, explains how paleoneurologists study the brains of human ancestors by producing endocasts from fossilized skulls and measuring cranial capacities. Dated skulls indicate brain size more than tripled in hominins during the Stone Age that began around 3.5 million years ago, while endocasts can also preserve traces of blood vessels and convolutions, even though sulci are often fragmentary and difficult to interpret. Falk describes how sulcal patterns differ most noticeably between great apes and humans in the lateral prefrontal cortex and in the parieto-occipital association cortices, and she addresses long-running debate about whether the lunate sulcus in evolving hominins marked the anterior border of primary visual cortex as it does in living monkeys and apes. Because few fossils exist from the earlier “Botanic Age,” she outlines how comparative primatology and evolutionary developmental biology can extend the study of brain evolution by considering brain development and locomotion, including bipedalism. She applies this extended paleoneurological synthesis with special attention to auditory entrainment and complex grammatical language. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41328]

Our brains are engines of imagination—an “idea organ” that has transformed both our species and the planet. Genevieve Konopka, Chair of the Department of Neurobiology in the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, asks how genes drive the development of the cell types that build the human brain and give rise to cognition, and how cognitive behavior emerges from evolutionarily adapted genomic programs. Because the human brain is comprised of heterogenous cell types, she examines gene expression patterns and chromatin states within specific cell types to gain insights into brain evolution and the development of cognitive disorders. Using single cell genomics to compare human and nonhuman primate brains, her work uncovers human brain innovations, including changes in the proportions of immature oligodendrocytes in the neocortex. She recapitulates this result in vitro using stem cell derived models from humans and nonhuman primates, highlighting the intersection of cellular genomics with brain evolution and function. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41298]

Humans live in a world of ideas—born in the brain, shared through language, accumulated in culture across generations, and made reality. From the first flaked stone tools to the building of shelters, from figurative and symbolic art to abstract thought, our brains are engines of imagination—an “idea organ” that has transformed both our species and the planet itself. The distinct biology of the human brain, scaffolded by language and culture, allows ideas to be formed, named, shared, and accumulated across generations. This process of cumulative culture, knowledge built upon knowledge, has propelled humans far beyond the cognitive landscapes of other large-brained animals, including our closest living and extinct relatives. This symposium explores how the human brain develops, functions, and maintains its role as the seat of ideas. We trace its story from molecules, cells, neuronal migration and circuitry, to the maternal, parental, and social influences that shape its growth, including the countless ways that brain function can be compromised at any stage of life. We examine how the uniquely human interplay of biology and culture gave rise to a brain capable of perceiving and remaking the world around us. By examining the evolutionary roots of our “idea organ,” we aim to illuminate how this singular capacity emerged—and how it continues to drive human innovation. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41358]

Humans live in a world of ideas—born in the brain, shared through language, accumulated in culture across generations, and made reality. Professor Alysson Muotri, UC San Diego Departments of Pediatrics and Cellular and Molecular Medicine, examines how human brain evolution reflects the interplay between genetic innovation and environmental pressures, focusing on Neuro-oncological ventral antigen 1 (NOVA1), an evolutionarily conserved splicing regulator essential for neural development with a protein-coding substitution unique to modern humans compared with Neanderthals and Denisovans. By reintroducing the archaic NOVA1 allele into human induced pluripotent stem cells and studying cortical organoids, the work finds accelerated maturation, increased surface complexity, altered synaptic marker expression, and changes in electrophysiological properties. Muotri also analyzes long-term lead exposure using fossilized teeth from multiple hominid species spanning over two million years, revealing pervasive exposure across extinct and extant hominids. Lead exposure selectively disrupted FOXP2 expression in cortical and thalamic organoids carrying the archaic NOVA1 variant, and findings were independently validated in NOVA1 humanized mouse models with altered vocalization. Together, these results suggest gene–environment interactions may have influenced neural circuit development, social behavior, and complex language capacity. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41297]

Dramatic advances in ancient DNA technologies have revolutionized our understanding of the human past. As part of the CARTA symposium on Ancient DNA, the panelists answer questions about the diverse applications of archaeogenomics in shaping not only a new vision of the human past, but also in creating a greater understanding of the present and our shared human future. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41202]

Genetic data is transforming the understanding of our own species and refining historical chapters at different scales around the globe. However, despite the globalization of biotechnologies to analyze the human genome, indigenous populations from the Americas and Oceania remain underrepresented in large-scale genomic studies. Andrés Moreno-Estrada, Cinvestav, discusses recent efforts to characterize the genetic profile of Indigenous Americans throughout the analysis of ancient and modern DNA, as well as their relationship within and beyond the continent, including the possibility of prehistoric contacts with Pacific Islanders. This topic poses challenges and opportunities to adequately study human diversity not only for the benefit of genetic research and science, but also for the benefit of the local communities, which are bearers of a unique evolutionary history that has been recorded in their DNA. This rapidly evolving field also raises questions about the best practices when studying the DNA of underrepresented ancestries while conducting cutting-edge science in a more equitable way. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41201]

The human genetic history of South Asia has been shaped by its pivotal location at the crossroads of East and West Eurasia, dramatic landscapes such as the Himalayas, and longstanding socio-cultural practices like endogamy. A consequence is the diversity of East and West Eurasian genetic ancestral lineages found in South Asians today. Maanasa Raghavan, professor at the University of Chicago, explains that the increasing genome-wide data from ancient and present-day humans are providing emerging insights into the demographic processes that underlie present-day genetic diversity of South Asians and how they interface with evidence from archaeology, anthropology, linguistics, and oral histories. Human history in South Asia is also closely intertwined with the animals that humans domesticated, traded, and moved with them, offering yet another window into the dynamics of human mobility and connectivity in the past. Raghavanon's talk focuses on ancient and modern DNA insights into the origins of present-day human genetic diversity in South Asia, evolutionary history of domesticates, and broader implications for our understanding of human movements and interactions across Eurasia. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41200]

Ancient DNA has revolutionized the study of the human past, providing unprecedented insights into ancient migrations and interactions among populations. Central Asia, due to its geographic location between Europe and Asia, has seen experienced diverse human and hominin migrations, which have been a focus of genetic, archaeological, linguistic, and historical research. Ainash Childebayeva, professor at the University of Texas at Austin, discusses recent advances in population genetics which have revealed the complex ancestry of Central Asian groups, both modern and ancient. Significant progress has also been made in understanding the role of natural selection in shaping genetic variation across the region. Childebayeva presents recent developments in our knowledge of Central Asia’s genetic history, integrating findings from both modern and ancient genomic studies. Additionally, she highlights the selective pressures that have influenced the genomes of Central Asians through time, shedding light on the dynamic interplay between admixture, adaptation, and cultural change. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41199]

Over the past decade, archaeogenetics has analyzed more than 15,000 ancient genomes spanning 45,000 years of western Eurasian prehistory, uncovering dozens of migrations that reshaped Europe. Johannes Krause, Max Planck Institute, traces the earliest, unsuccessful attempts of modern humans to settle Europe after leaving Africa around 50,000 years ago, when they also interbred with Neandertals. Krause examines two major genetic turnovers of the Neolithic: the spread of early farmers from Anatolia about 8,000 years ago, who brought agriculture and domesticated animals and later mixed with indigenous hunter-gatherers; and the arrival of mobile herders from the Pontic steppe around 5,000 years ago, who introduced pastoralism and possibly Indo-European languages. Finally, he considers migrations triggered by the collapse of the Roman Empire, showing how large-scale mobility created the multiple ancestral strands found in modern Europeans. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41198]

Dramatic advances in ancient DNA technologies have revolutionized our understanding of the human past. Since the publication of the first ancient human genomes in 2010, the field of archaeogenomics has grown at an astonishing pace, and today the genomes of more than 10,000 ancient humans have been sequenced. Kicking off this symposium are CARTA Co-Director and Salk Institute President Jerry Joyce and event co-chair Johannes Krause. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41194]

The Kazakh and Mongolian Steppes span 5,000 kilometers west to east along the northern latitude of Asia. This unique ecozone allowed rapid movements of people, animals, goods, and ideas across Eurasia since prehistory and harbored numerous polities of pastoralists that made tremendous impacts on human history. However, the region’s dynamic genetic history has been emerging only recently from archaeogenomic studies. Choongwon Jeong of Seoul National University discusses the current understanding of the region’s genetic history, including the divergent genetic history of the Kazakh and Mongolian Steppe populations, the genetic interaction between the steppe pastoralists and their neighbors, and a comparison between the genetic history of human and domesticated animal populations. The emerging genetic view illuminates the poorly recorded history of the Kazakh and Mongolian Steppes and provides an interconnected perspective on the history of Eurasia. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41197]

Humans have a deep and complex relationship with microbes. Beyond disease, microbes also profoundly shape human health and behavior through their activity in the microbiome and their diverse roles in food and cuisine. And yet we know very little about the origin, evolution, or ecology of the trillions of microorganisms that call us home. Christina Warinner of Harvard University discusses recent advances in genomic and proteomic technologies that are opening up dramatic new opportunities to investigate the complex and diverse microbial communities that have long inhabited our human bodies and our food systems - both in sickness and in health. From infectious disease to the microbiome, microbes are the invisible and often overlooked figures that have profoundly shaped human culture and influenced the course of human history. Warinner focuses on the long arc of human-microbial relationships preserved by ancient DNA over the past 100,000 years, and explores how emerging research on pathogen evolution and the recent loss of commensal microbes is changing how we understand human health – both today and in the past. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41196]

David Gokhman of the Weizmann Institute of Science explores how changes in gene regulation shaped recent human evolution. His team used massively parallel reporter assays in skeletal and neural cells to test 71,443 genetic variants that distinguish Neanderthals and Denisovans from modern humans, building a catalog that reveals hundreds of noncoding variants that alter gene expression. The work uncovers evolutionary trends and examples of convergent evolution, including an enhancer of KDM8, a gene involved in tumor progression, that was completely silenced in both archaic and modern human lineages through different mechanisms: motif disruption in Neanderthals and Denisovans, and hypermethylation in modern humans. Gokhman also introduces a way to reconstruct anatomical profiles from DNA sequence and methylation, using it to model Denisovan anatomy and scan the fossil record. The results suggest that the Harbin and Dali fossils were likely Denisovans, while Kabwe may have been related to the ancestor of Neanderthals and Denisovans, helping to clarify the regulatory changes underlying human evolution. Series: "CARTA - Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny" [Science] [Show ID: 41195]